Extremely low resistance composition and methods for creating same

ABSTRACT

The invention pertains to creating new extremely low resistance (“ELR”) materials, which may include high temperature superconducting (“HTS”) materials. In some implementations of the invention, an ELR material may be modified by depositing a layer of modifying material unto the ELR material to form a modified ELR material. The modified ELR material has improved operational characteristics over the ELR material alone. Such operational characteristics may include operating at increased temperatures or carrying additional electrical charge or other operational characteristics. In some implementations of the invention, the ELR material is a cuprate-perovskite, such as, but not limited to YBCO. In some implementations of the invention, the modifying material is a conductive material that bonds easily to oxygen, such as, but not limited to, chromium.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of application Ser. No.12/794,688 filed on Jun. 4, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,211,833, theentire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention is generally related to materials with extremely lowresistance (“ELR materials”) at high temperatures, and more particularlyto modifying ELR materials, including various existing high temperaturesuperconducting (“HTS”) materials, to operate at higher temperaturesand/or with increased charge carrying capacity.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Various HTS materials exist. Ongoing research attempts to achieve newHTS materials with improved operating characteristics over existing HTSmaterials. Such operating characteristics may include, but are notlimited to, operating in a superconducting state at higher temperatures,operating with increased charge carrying capacity at the same (orhigher) temperatures, and/or other operating characteristics.

Scientists have theorized a possible existence of a “perfect conductor,”or material that exhibits extremely low resistance (similar to theresistance exhibited by superconducting materials, includingsuperconducting HTS materials, in their superconducting state), but thatmay not necessarily demonstrate all the other conventionally acceptedcharacteristics of a superconducting material.

Notwithstanding their name, conventional HTS materials still operate atvery low temperatures. In fact, most commonly used HTS materials stillrequire use of liquid nitrogen cooling systems. Such cooling systemsincrease costs and prohibit widespread commercial and consumerapplication of such materials.

What are needed are improved ELR materials that operate at highertemperatures and/or with increased charge carrying capacity.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a furtherunderstanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, illustrate various exemplary implementationsof the invention and together with the detailed description serve toexplain various principles and/or aspects of one or more embodiments ofthe invention.

FIG. 1 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a first perspective.

FIG. 2 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 3 is a flowchart for producing a modified ELR material from anexemplary ELR material according to various implementations of theinvention.

FIGS. 4A-4I illustrate a procedure for preparing a modified ELR materialaccording to various implementations of the invention.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart for depositing a modifying material onto anexemplary ELR material according to various implementations of theinvention.

FIG. 6 illustrates a test bed useful for determining various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material according to variousimplementations of the invention.

FIGS. 7A-7G illustrate test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material according to variousimplementations of the invention.

FIG. 8 illustrates a second set of test results demonstrating variousoperational characteristics of a modified ELR material according tovarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 9 illustrates an arrangement of an exemplary ELR material and amodifying material useful for operating at higher temperatures and/orfor carrying additional charge according to various implementations ofthe invention.

FIG. 10 illustrates a crystalline structure of a unit cell of YBCO asviewed from a second perspective.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Generally speaking, various implementations of the invention relate tonew ELR materials and/or processes for creating new ELR materials. Insome implementations of the invention, existing ELR materials, includingexisting HTS materials, are modified to create modified ELR materialswith improved operating characteristics. These operating characteristicsmay include, but are not limited to, operating in an extremely lowresistance state at increased temperatures, operating with increasedcharge carrying capacity at the same (or higher) temperatures, and/orother improved operating characteristics. With regard to HTS materials,these operating characteristics may correspondingly include, but are notlimited to, operating in a superconducting state at increasedtemperatures, operating with increased charge carrying capacity at thesame (or higher) temperatures, and/or other improved operatingcharacteristics.

In some implementations, a modifying material is layered onto an ELRmaterial to form a modified ELR material that operates at a highertemperature than that of the ELR material without a modifying material.Exemplary ELR materials may be selected from a family of HTS materialsknown as cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials. Modifying materials maybe selected from any one or combination of chromium, rhodium, beryllium,gallium, selenium, and/or vanadium.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition comprises an ELRmaterial and a modifying material bonded to the ELR material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition comprises anextremely low resistance material, and a modifying material bonded tothe extremely low resistance material, where the composition hasimproved operating characteristics over the extremely low resistancematerial.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition comprises anextremely low resistance material, and a modifying material bonded tothe extremely low resistance material such that the composition operatesin an ELR state at a temperature greater than that of the extremely lowresistance material alone or without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises bonding amodifying material to an extremely low resistance material to form amodified extremely low resistance material, where the modified extremelylow resistance material operates at a temperature greater than that ofthe extremely low resistance material alone or without the modifyingmaterial.

In some implementations of the invention, a method for creating anextremely low resistance material comprises depositing a modifyingmaterial onto an initial extremely low resistance material therebycreating the extremely low resistance material, wherein the extremelylow resistance material has improved operating characteristics over theinitial extremely low resistance material alone or without the modifyingmaterial.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises bonding amodifying material to a superconducting material to form a modifiedsuperconducting material such that the modified superconducting materialoperates in superconducting state at a temperature greater than that ofthe superconducting material alone or without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition comprises afirst layer comprising an extremely low resistance material, and asecond layer comprising a modifying material, where the second layer isbonded to the first layer. In some implementations of the invention, acomposition comprises a first layer comprising an extremely lowresistance material, a second layer comprising a modifying material,where the second layer is bonded to the first layer, a third layercomprising the extremely low resistance material, and a fourth layer ofthe modifying material, where the third layer is bonded to the fourthlayer. In some implementations of the invention, the second layer isdeposited onto the first layer. In some implementations of theinvention, the first layer is deposited onto the second layer. In someimplementations of the invention, the extremely low resistance materialof the first layer is formed on the second layer. In someimplementations of the invention, the first layer has a thickness of atleast a single crystalline unit cell of the extremely low resistancematerial. In some implementations of the invention, the first layer hasa thickness of several crystalline unit cells of the extremely lowresistance material. In some implementations of the invention, thesecond layer has a thickness of at least a single atom of the modifyingmaterial. In some implementations of the invention, the second layer hasa thickness of several atoms of the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition comprises afirst layer comprising YBCO, and a second layer comprising a modifyingmaterial, wherein the modifying material of the second layer is bondedto the YBCO of the first layer, wherein the modifying material is anelement selected as any one or more of the group consisting of chromium,rhodium, beryllium, gallium, selenium, and vanadium. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, where the faceis not substantially perpendicular to a c-axis of the YBCO. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, where the faceis substantially perpendicular to any line in an a-b plane of the YBCO.In some implementations of the invention, the modifying material of thesecond layer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, wherethe face is substantially perpendicular to a b-axis of the YBCO. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, where the faceis substantially perpendicular to an a-axis of the YBCO. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, where the faceis substantially parallel to the c-axis.

In any of the aforementioned or following implementations of theinvention, the ELR material comprises a HTS material. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations of the invention, the ELRmaterial comprises an HTS perovskite material. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations of the invention, the HTSperovskite material may be selected from the groups generically referredto as LaBaCuO, LSCO, YBCO, BSCCO, TBCCO, HgBa₂Ca₂Cu₃O_(x), or other HTSperovskite materials. In any of the aforementioned or followingimplementations of the invention, the modifying materials may be aconductive material that bonds easily with oxygen. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations of the invention, themodifying materials may be any one or combination of chromium, rhodium,beryllium, gallium, selenium, and/or vanadium. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations of the invention, variouscombinations of the ELR materials and the modifying materials may beused. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations of theinvention, the ELR material is YBCO and the modifying material ischromium.

In any of the aforementioned or following implementations of theinvention, the composition operates at a higher temperature than theextremely low resistance material alone or without the modifyingmaterial. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations ofthe invention, the composition demonstrates extremely low resistance ata higher temperature than that of the extremely low resistance materialalone or without the modifying material. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations of the invention, the composition transitionsfrom a non-ELR state to an ELR state at a temperature higher than thatof the extremely low resistance material alone or without the modifyingmaterial. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations ofthe invention, the composition has a transition temperature greater thanthat of the extremely low resistance material alone or without themodifying material. In any of the aforementioned or followingimplementations of the invention, the composition carries a greateramount of current in an ELR state than that carried by the extremely lowresistance material alone or without the modifying material.

In any of the aforementioned or following implementations, thecomposition operates in an extremely low resistance state at a highertemperature than the extremely low resistance material alone or withoutthe modifying material. In any of the aforementioned or followingimplementations, the composition operates in an extremely low resistancestate at temperatures greater than 100K. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations, the composition operates in an extremely lowresistance state at temperatures greater than 110K. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations, the composition operates inan extremely low resistance state at temperatures greater than 120K. Inany of the aforementioned or following implementations, the compositionoperates in an extremely low resistance state at temperatures greaterthan 130K. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations,the composition operates in an extremely low resistance state attemperatures greater than 140K. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations, the composition operates in an extremely lowresistance state at temperatures greater than 150K. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations, the composition operates inan extremely low resistance state at temperatures greater than 160K. Inany of the aforementioned or following implementations, the compositionoperates in an extremely low resistance state at temperatures greaterthan 170K. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations,the composition operates in an extremely low resistance state attemperatures greater than 180K. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations, the composition operates in an extremely lowresistance state at temperatures greater than 190K. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations, the composition operates inan extremely low resistance state at temperatures greater than 200K. Inany of the aforementioned or following implementations, the compositionoperates in an extremely low resistance state at temperatures greaterthan 210K. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations,the composition operates in an extremely low resistance state attemperatures greater than 220K. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations, the composition operates in an extremely lowresistance state at temperatures greater than 230K. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations, the composition operates inan extremely low resistance state at temperatures greater than 240K. Inany of the aforementioned or following implementations, the compositionoperates in an extremely low resistance state at temperatures greaterthan 250K. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations,the composition operates in an extremely low resistance state attemperatures greater than 260K. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations, the composition operates in an extremely lowresistance state at temperatures greater than 270K. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations, the composition operates inan extremely low resistance state at temperatures greater than 280K. Inany of the aforementioned or following implementations, the compositionoperates in an extremely low resistance state at temperatures greaterthan 290K. In any of the aforementioned or following implementations,the composition operates in an extremely low resistance state attemperatures greater than 300K. In any of the aforementioned orfollowing implementations, the composition operates in an extremely lowresistance state at temperatures greater than 310K.

In any of the aforementioned or following implementations where the ELRmaterial is YBCO, the composition has improved operating characteristicsover those of YBCO alone or without the modifying material. In any ofthe aforementioned or following implementations where the ELR materialis YBCO, the composition operates at a higher temperature than that ofYBCO alone or without the modifying material. In any of theaforementioned or following implementations where the ELR material isYBCO, the composition demonstrates extremely low resistance at a highertemperature than that of YBCO alone or without the modifying material.In any of the aforementioned or following implementations where the ELRmaterial is YBCO, the composition transitions from a non-ELR state to anELR state at a temperature higher than that of YBCO alone or without themodifying material. In any of the aforementioned or followingimplementations where the ELR material is YBCO, the composition has atransition temperature greater than that of YBCO alone or without themodifying material. In any of the aforementioned or followingimplementations where the ELR material is YBCO, the composition carriesa greater amount of current in an ELR state than that carried by YBCO inits ELR state alone or without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a product or composition isproduced by any of the aforementioned methods or processes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various features, advantages, and implementations of the invention maybe set forth or be apparent from consideration of the following detaileddescription, drawings, and claims. Moreover, it is to be understood thatthe detailed description and the drawings are exemplary and intended toprovide further explanation without limiting the scope of the inventionas claimed.

Various known high temperature superconducting (“HTS”) materials exist.Scientists have theorized an existence of a “perfect conductor” or amaterial with extremely low resistance (i.e., resistance similar to thatof superconducting materials operating in their superconducting state)that may not exhibit all the other conventionally acceptedcharacteristics of a superconducting material. For purposes of thisdescription, extremely low resistance (“ELR”) materials shallgenerically refer to both superconducting materials, including HTSmaterials, and perfect conducting materials.

As generally understood, a transition temperature of an ELR material(sometimes also referred to as a critical temperature of such ELRmaterial, including HTS materials) refers to the temperature below whichthe ELR material “operates” or exhibits (or begins exhibiting) extremelylow resistance and/or other phenomenon associated withsuperconductivity. In other words, the transition temperaturecorresponds to a temperature at which the ELR material changes or“transitions” between a non-ELR state and an ELR state. As would beappreciated, for many ELR materials, the transition temperature may be arange of temperatures over which the ELR material changes states. Aswould also be appreciated, the ELR material may have hysteresis in itstransition temperature with one transition temperature as the ELRmaterial warms and another transition temperature as the ELR materialcools.

FIG. 1 illustrates a crystalline structure 100 of an exemplary ELRmaterial as viewed from a first perspective, namely, a perspectiveperpendicular to an “a-b” face of crystalline structure 100 and parallelto a c-axis thereof. FIG. 2 illustrates crystalline structure 100 asviewed from a second perspective, namely, a perspective perpendicular toan “a-c” face of crystalline structure 100 and parallel to a b-axisthereof. With respect to this exemplary ELR material, the secondperspective is similar to a third perspective of crystalline structure100 which is perpendicular to a “b-c” face of crystalline structure 100and parallel to an a-axis thereof. For purposes of this description, theexemplary ELR material illustrated in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 is generallyrepresentative of a family of HTS materials known as cuprate-perovskiteceramic materials (“HTS perovskite materials”). The HTS perovskitematerials include, but are not limited to, LaBaCuO, LSCO (e.g.,La_(2-x)Sr_(x)CuO₄, etc.), YBCO (e.g., YBa₂Cu₃O₇, etc.), BSCCO (e.g.,Bi₂Sr₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀, etc.), TBCCO (e.g., Tl₂Ba₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀ orTl_(m)Ba₂Ca_(n-1)Cu_(n)O_(2n+m+2+δ)), HgBa₂Ca₂Cu₃O_(x), and other HTSperovskite materials. The other HTS perovskite materials may include,but are not limited to, various substitutions of the cations as would beappreciated. As would also be appreciated, the aforementioned named HTSperovskite materials may refer to generic classes of materials in whichmany different formulations exist. Many of the HTS perovskite materialshave a structure generally similar to (though not necessarily identicalto) that of crystalline structure 100.

Studies of some ELR materials demonstrate a directional dependence ofthe resistance phenomenon (i.e., the phenomenon of extremely lowresistance) in relation to crystalline structure 100. HTS perovskitematerials predominately exhibit the resistance phenomenon in a directionperpendicular to both the a-c face of crystalline structure 100 (i.e.,in a direction parallel to the b-axis) and the b-c face of crystallinestructure 100 (i.e., in a direction parallel to the a-axis) and invarious combinations thereof (i.e., in directions within the a-b plane).These materials tend not to exhibit the same level of resistancephenomenon in a direction perpendicular to the a-b face of crystallinestructure 100 (i.e., in a direction parallel to the c-axis) as comparedwith other directions. In other words, the resistance phenomenon appearsdifferent in the direction of the c-axis. As would be appreciated,various ELR materials exhibit the resistance phenomenon in directionsother than or in addition to those described above.

In some implementations of the invention, the ELR material correspondsto an HTS perovskite material commonly referred to as “YBCO.” YBCOincludes various atoms of yttrium (“Y”), barium (“Ba”), copper (“Cu”)and oxygen (“O”). By itself, YBCO has a transition temperature ofapproximately 90K. FIG. 10 illustrates a crystalline structure 1000 ofYBCO as would be appreciated. As used herein, YBCO refers to a broadclass of yttrium-barium-copper oxide of varying formulations as would beappreciated.

According to various implementations of the invention, various known ELRmaterials may be modified (thereby producing or creating new ELRmaterial derivations) such that these modified ELR materials operate athigher temperatures than that of the unmodified ELR material. Accordingto various implementations of the invention, various known ELR materialsmay be modified (thereby producing or creating new ELR materialderivations) such that the modified ELR material carries electricalcharge in an ELR state at higher temperatures than that of theunmodified ELR material.

In some implementations of the invention, a modifying material islayered onto an ELR material, such as, but not limited to, certain HTSperovskite materials referred to above. In some implementations of theinvention, the modifying material corresponds to a class of conductivematerials that bonds easily with oxygen (“oxygen bonding conductivematerials”). Such oxygen bonding conductive materials include, but arenot limited to chromium (Cr), rhodium (Rh), beryllium (Be), gallium(Ga), selenium (Se), and vanadium (V). In some implementations of theinvention, the modifying material corresponds to chromium. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material corresponds torhodium. In some implementations of the invention, the modifyingmaterial corresponds to beryllium. In some implementations of theinvention, the modifying material corresponds to gallium. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material corresponds toselenium. In some implementations of the invention, the modifyingmaterial corresponds to vanadium. In some implementations of theinvention, other elements may be used as the modifying material. In someimplementations of the invention, combinations of different atoms (e.g.,compounds, alloys, etc.) may be used as the modifying material. In someimplementations of the invention, various layers of atoms and/orcombinations of atoms may be used collectively as the modifyingmaterial.

In some implementations of the invention, the modifying material ischromium and the ELR material is YBCO. In some implementations of theinvention, the modifying material is rhodium and the ELR material isYBCO. In some implementations of the invention, the modifying materialis beryllium and the ELR material is YBCO. In some implementations ofthe invention, the modifying material is gallium and the ELR material isYBCO. In some implementations of the invention, the modifying materialis selenium and the ELR material is YBCO. In some implementations of theinvention, the modifying material is vanadium and the ELR material isYBCO. In some implementations of the invention, the modifying materialis another oxygen bonding conductive material and the ELR material isYBCO.

In some implementations of the invention, various other combinations ofHTS perovskite materials and oxygen bonding conductive materials may beused. For example, in some implementations of the invention, the ELRmaterial corresponds to an HTS perovskite material commonly referred toas “BSCCO.” BSCCO includes various atoms of bismuth (“Bi”), strontium(“Sr”), calcium (“Ca”), copper (“Cu”) and oxygen (“O”). By itself, BSCCOhas a transition temperature of approximately 100K. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material is chromium andthe ELR material is BSCCO. In some implementations of the invention, themodifying material is rhodium and the ELR material is BSCCO. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material is berylliumand the ELR material is BSCCO. In some implementations of the invention,the modifying material is gallium and the ELR material is BSCCO. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material is selenium andthe ELR material is BSCCO. In some implementations of the invention, themodifying material is vanadium and the ELR material is BSCCO. In someimplementations of the invention, the modifying material is anotheroxygen bonding conductive material and the ELR material is BSCCO.

In some implementations of the invention, atoms of the modifyingmaterial may be layered onto a sample of the ELR material using varioustechniques for layering one composition onto another composition. Insome implementations of the invention, the ELR material may be layeredonto a sample of modifying material using various techniques forlayering one composition onto another composition. In someimplementations of the invention, a single atomic layer of the modifyingmaterial (i.e., a layer of the modifying material having a thicknesssubstantially equal to a single atom of the modifying material) may belayered onto a sample of the ELR material. In some implementations ofthe invention, the ELR material may be layered onto a single atomiclayer of the modifying material. In some implementations of theinvention, two or more atomic layers of the modifying material may belayered onto the ELR material. In some implementations of the invention,the ELR material may be layered onto two or more atomic layers of themodifying material.

FIGS. 3 and 4A-4I are now used to describe modifying a sample 410 of theELR material 400 to produce a modified ELR material 460 according tovarious implementations of the invention. FIG. 3 is a flowchart formodifying sample 410 of the ELR material 400 with a modifying material480 to produce a modified ELR material 460 according to variousimplementations of the invention. FIGS. 4A-4I illustrate sample 410 ofthe ELR material 400 undergoing various modifications to producemodified ELR material 460 according to various implementations of theinvention. In some implementations of the invention, the ELR material400 is a HTS perovskite material and the modifying material 480 is anoxygen bonding conductive material. In some implementations of theinvention and for purposes of the following description, the ELRmaterial 400 is YBCO and the modifying material 480 is chromium.

As illustrated in FIG. 4A, sample 410 is a plurality of crystalline unitcells of ELR material 400 which is substantially oriented with itsnon-conducting axis along the c-axis. In some implementations of theinvention, sample 410 has dimensions of approximately 5 mm×10 mm×10 mm.For purposes of this description, sample 410 is oriented so that aprimary axis of conduction of exemplary ELR material 400 is alignedalong the a-axis. As would be apparent, if exemplary ELR material 400includes two primary axes of conduction, sample 410 may be orientedalong either the a-axis or the b-axis. As would be further appreciated,in some implementations sample 410 may be oriented along any line withinthe a-b plane.

In an operation 310 and as illustrated in FIG. 4B and FIG. 4C, a slice420 is produced by cutting sample 410 along a plane substantiallyparallel to the b-c face of sample 410. In some implementations of theinvention, slice 420 is approximately 3 mm thick although otherthicknesses may be used. In some implementations of the invention, thismay be accomplished using a precision diamond blade.

In some implementations of the invention, in an operation 320 and asillustrated in FIG. 4D, FIG. 4E, and FIG. 4F, a wedge 430 is produced bycutting slice 420 along a diagonal of the b-c face of slice 420. In someimplementations of the invention, this may be accomplished using aprecision diamond blade. This operation produces an exposed face 440 onthe diagonal surface of wedge 430. In some implementations of theinvention, exposed face 440 corresponds to any plane that issubstantially parallel to the c-axis. In some implementations of theinvention, exposed face 440 corresponds to a plane substantiallyperpendicular to the a-axis (i.e., a b-c face of crystalline structure100). In some implementations of the invention, exposed face 440corresponds to a plane substantially perpendicular to the b-axis (i.e.,an a-c face of crystalline structure 100). In some implementations ofthe invention, exposed face 440 corresponds to a plane substantiallyperpendicular to any line in the a-b plane. In some implementations ofthe invention, exposed face 440 corresponds to any plane that is notsubstantially perpendicular to the c-axis or other non-conducting axisof the exemplary ELR material 400.

In an operation 330 and as illustrated in FIG. 4G, modifying material480 is deposited onto exposed face 440 to produce a face 450 ofmodifying material 480 on wedge 430 and a modified region of ELRmaterial 400 at an interface between diagonal face 440 and modifyingmaterial 480. This modified region of ELR material 400 corresponds to aregion in wedge 430 proximate to where atoms of modifying material 480bond to the ELR material 400. Other forms of bonding modifying material480 to ELR material 400 may be used. Operation 330 is described infurther detail below in reference to FIG. 5 in accordance with variousimplementations of the invention.

Referring to FIG. 5, in an operation 510, exposed face 440 is polishedwith a series of water-based colloidal slurries. In some implementationsof the invention, exposed face 440 is finally polished with a 20 nmcolloidal slurry. In some implementations of the invention, polishing ofexposed face 440 is performed in a direction substantially parallel tothe a-axis of wedge 430. In an operation 520, one or more surfaces otherthan exposed face 440 are masked. In some implementations, all surfacesother than exposed face 440 are masked. In an operation 530, modifyingmaterial 480 is deposited onto exposed face 440. In someimplementations, modifying material 480 is deposited onto exposed face440 using vapor deposition. In some implementations of the invention,other techniques for depositing modifying material 480 onto exposed face440 may be used. In some implementations of the invention, approximately40 nm of modifying material 480 is deposited onto exposed face 440. Insome implementations of the invention, modifying material 480 isdeposited onto exposed face 440 using vapor deposition under a vacuum of5×10⁻⁶ torr or less.

Referring to FIG. 3, FIG. 4H and FIG. 4I, in an operation 340, in someimplementations of the invention, a portion of wedge 430 is removed toreduce a size of wedge 430 to produce a reduced wedge 490. In anoperation 350, double-ended leads are attached to each of the two b-cfaces of reduced wedge 490. In some implementations of the invention, abonding agent, such as, but not limited to, silver paste (Alfa Aesarsilver paste #42469) is used to apply double-ended leads to the two b-cfaces of reduced wedge 490. In these implementations, the bonding agentmay require curing. For example, the silver paste may be cured for onehour at 60° C. and then cured for an additional hour at 150° C. Othercuring protocols may be used as would be apparent. In someimplementations of the invention, a conductive material, such as, butnot limited to, silver, is sputtered or otherwise bonded onto each ofthe two b-c faces of reduced wedge 490 and the double-ended leads areattached thereto as would be apparent. Other mechanisms for attachingdouble-ended leads to reduced wedge 490 may be used.

FIG. 6 illustrates a test bed 600 useful for determining variousoperational characteristics of reduced wedge 490. Test bed 600 includesa housing 610 and four clamps 620. Reduced wedge 490 is placed inhousing 610 and each of the double-ended leads is clamped to housing 610using clamps 620 as illustrated. The leads are clamped to housing 610 toprovide stress relief in order to prevent flexure and/or fracture of thecured silver paste. A current source is applied to one end of the pairof double-ended leads and a voltmeter measures voltage across the otherend of the pair of double-ended leads. This configuration provides afour-point technique for determining resistance of reduced wedge 490,and in particular, of modified ELR material 460 as would be appreciated.

FIGS. 7A-7G illustrate test results 700 obtained as described above.Test results 700 include a plot of resistance of modified ELR material460 as a function of temperature (in K). FIG. 7A includes test results700 over a full range of temperature over which resistance of modifiedELR material 460 was measured, namely 84K to 286K. In order to providefurther detail, test results 700 were broken into various temperatureranges and illustrated. In particular, FIG. 7B illustrates those testresults 700 within a temperature range from 240K to 280K; FIG. 7Cillustrates those test results 700 within a temperature range from 210Kto 250K; FIG. 7D illustrates those test results 700 within a temperaturerange from 180K to 220K; FIG. 7E illustrates those test results 700within a temperature range from 150K to 190K; FIG. 7F illustrates thosetest results 700 within a temperature range from 120K to 160K; and FIG.7G illustrates those test results 700 within a temperature range from84.5K to 124.5K.

Test results 700 demonstrate that various portions of modified ELRmaterial 460 within reduced wedge 490 operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures relative to exemplary ELR material 400. Six sample analysistest runs were made using reduced wedge 490. For each sample analysistest run, test bed 610, with reduced wedge 490 mounted therein, wasslowly cooled from approximately 286K to 83K. While being cooled, thecurrent source applied +60 nA and −60 nA of current in a delta modeconfiguration through reduced wedge 490 in order to reduce impact of anyDC offsets and/or thermocouple effects. At regular time intervals, thevoltage across reduced wedge 490 was measured by the voltmeter. For eachsample analysis test run, the time series of voltage measurements werefiltered using a 512-point FFT. All but the lowest 44 frequencies fromthe FFT were eliminated from the data and the filtered data was returnedto the time domain. The filtered data from each sample analysis test runwere then merged together to produce test results 700. Moreparticularly, in a process commonly referred to as “binning,” all theresistance measurements from the six sample analysis test runs wereorganized into a series of temperature ranges (e.g., 80K-80.25K, 80.25Kto 80.50, 80.5K to 80.75K, etc.). Then the resistance measurements ineach temperature range were averaged together to provide an averageresistance measurement for each temperature range. These averageresistance measurements form test results 700.

Test results 700 include various discrete steps 710 in the resistanceversus temperature plot, each of such discrete steps 710 representing arelatively rapid change in resistance over a relatively narrow range oftemperatures. At each of these discrete steps 710, discrete portions orfractions of modified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical chargesup to such portions' charge carrying capacity at the respectivetemperatures.

Before discussing test results 700 in further detail, variouscharacteristics of exemplary ELR material 400 and modifying material 480are discussed. Resistance versus temperature (“R-T”) profiles of thesematerials individually are generally well known. The individual R-Tprofiles of exemplary ELR material 400 and modifying material 480individually are not believed to include changes similar to discretesteps 710 found in test results 700. Accordingly, discrete steps 710 arethe result of modifying ELR material 400 with modifying material 480 tothereby cause the modified material to remain in an ELR state atincreased temperatures in accordance with various implementations of theinvention.

Test results 700 indicate that certain portions (i.e., fractions) ofmodified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 97K. Test results 700 also indicate that: certain portionsof modified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 100K; certain portions of modified ELR material 460 begincarrying electrical charge at approximately 103K; certain portions ofmodified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 113K; certain portions of modified ELR material 460 begincarrying electrical charge at approximately 126K; certain portions ofmodified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 140K; certain portions of modified ELR material 460 begincarrying electrical charge at approximately 146K; certain portions ofmodified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 179K; certain portions of modified ELR material 460 begincarrying electrical charge at approximately 183.5K; certain portions ofmodified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 200.5K; certain portions of modified ELR material 460begin carrying electrical charge at approximately 237.5K; and certainportions of modified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical chargeat approximately 250K. Certain portions of modified ELR material 460 maybegin carrying electrical charge at other temperatures within the fulltemperature range as would be appreciated.

Test results 700 include various other relatively rapid changes inresistance over a relatively narrow range of temperatures not otherwiseidentified as a discrete step 710. Some of these other changes maycorrespond to artifacts from data processing techniques used on themeasurements obtained during the test runs (e.g., FFTs, filtering,etc.). Some of these other changes may correspond to additional discretesteps 710. In addition, changes in resistance in the temperature rangeof 270-274K may be associated with water present in modified ELRmaterial 460, some of which may have been introduced during preparationof reduced wedge 490, for example, but not limited to, during operation510.

In addition to discrete steps 710, test results 700 differ from the R-Tprofile of exemplary ELR material 400 in that modifying material 480conducts well at temperatures above the transition temperature ofexemplary ELR material 400 whereas exemplary ELR material 400 typicallydoes not.

FIG. 8 illustrates additional test results 800 for samples of exemplaryELR material 400 and modifying material 480 similar to those discussedabove. Test results 800 include a plot of resistance of modified ELRmaterial 460 as a function of temperature (in K). FIG. 8 includes testresults 800 over a full range of temperature over which resistance ofmodified ELR material 460 was measured, namely 80K to 275K. Test results800 demonstrate that various portions of modified ELR material 460operate in an ELR state at higher temperatures relative to exemplary ELRmaterial 400. Five sample analysis test runs were made with a sample ofmodified ELR material 460. For each sample analysis test run, test bed610, with a sample of modified ELR material 460 mounted therein, wasslowly warmed from approximately 80K to 275K. While being warmed, thecurrent source applied +10 nA and −10 nA of current in a delta modeconfiguration through the sample in order to reduce impact of any DCoffsets and/or thermocouple effects. At regular time intervals (which inthis case was 24 samples per minute), the voltage across the sample ofmodified ELR material 460 was measured by the voltmeter. For each sampleanalysis test run, the time series of voltage measurements were filteredusing a 1024-point FFT. All but the lowest 15 frequencies from the FFTwere eliminated from the data and the filtered data was returned to thetime domain. The filtered data from each sample analysis test run werethen merged together to produce test results 800. More particularly, allthe resistance measurements from the five sample analysis test runs wereorganized into a series of temperature ranges (e.g., 80K to 80.25K,80.25K to 80.50, 80.5K to 80.75K, etc.). Then the resistancemeasurements in each temperature range were averaged together to providean average resistance measurement for each temperature range. Theseaverage resistance measurements form test results 800.

Test results 800 include various discrete steps 810 in the resistanceversus temperature plot, each of such discrete steps 810 representing arelatively rapid change in resistance over a relatively narrow range oftemperatures, similar to discrete steps 710 discussed above with respectto FIGS. 7A-7G. At each of these discrete steps 810, discrete portionsor fractions of modified ELR material 460 begin carrying electricalcharges up to such portions' charge carrying capacity at the respectivetemperatures.

Test results 800 indicate that certain portions of modified ELR material460 begin carrying electrical charge at approximately 120K. Test results800 also indicate that: certain portions of modified ELR material 460begin carrying electrical charge at approximately 145K; certain portionsof modified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 175K; certain portions of modified ELR material 460 begincarrying electrical charge at approximately 200K; certain portions ofmodified ELR material 460 begin carrying electrical charge atapproximately 225K; and certain portions of modified ELR material 460begin carrying electrical charge at approximately 250K. Certain portionsof modified ELR material 460 may begin carrying electrical charge atother temperatures within the full temperature range as would beappreciated.

FIG. 9 illustrates an arrangement 900 including alternating layers ofexemplary ELR material 400 and a modifying material 480 useful forcarrying additional electrical charge according to variousimplementations of the invention. Such layers may be formed onto oneanother using various techniques, including various depositiontechniques. Arrangement 900 provides increased surface area between theELR material 400 and the modifying material 480 thereby increasing acharge carrying capacity of arrangement 900.

In some implementations of the invention, any number of layers may beused. In some implementations of the invention, other ELR materialsand/or other modifying materials may be used. In some implementations ofthe invention, additional layers of other material (e.g., insulators,conductors, or other materials) may be used between paired layers of theELR material 400 and modifying material 480 to mitigate various effects(e.g., Meissner effect, migration of materials, or other effects) or toenhance the characteristics of the modified ELR material 460 formedwithin such paired layers. In some implementations of the invention, notall layers are paired. In other words, arrangement 900 may have one ormore extra (i.e., unpaired) layers of ELR material 400 or one or moreextra layers of modifying material 480.

In some implementations of the invention, each layer of modifyingmaterial 480 is one or more atomic layers thick. In some implementationsof the invention, each layer of modifying material 480 is several atomiclayers thick. In some implementations of the invention, each layer ofthe ELR material 400 is one or more crystalline unit cells thick. Insome implementations of the invention, each layer of the ELR material400 is several crystalline unit cells thick. In some implementations ofthe invention, layers of the modifying material 480 are thicker thanlayers of the ELR material 400. In some implementations of theinvention, layers of the modifying material 480 are thinner than layersof the ELR material 400. In some implementations of the invention,layers of the modifying material 480 have a thickness that issubstantially the same as a thickness of the ELR material 400.

In some implementations of the invention, various deposition techniques,including, but not limited to, ion beam assisted deposition, molecularbeam epitaxy, atomic layer deposition, pulse laser deposition, or otherdeposition techniques, may be used, some of which may be used to improvealignment of crystalline unit cells within layers of ELR material 400 aswould be appreciated.

In some implementations of the invention, bonding, including layering ordepositing, a modifying material 480 to an ELR material 400 does notincluding “doping” the ELR material 400 with the modifying material 480.

Although the foregoing description is directed toward variousimplementations of the invention, it is noted that other variations andmodifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art, and may bemade without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention.Moreover, various features described in connection with oneimplementation of the invention may be used in conjunction orcombination with various other features or other implementationsdescribed herein, even if not expressly stated above.

What is claimed is:
 1. A composition comprising: a first layercomprising YBCO; and a second layer comprising a modifying material,wherein the modifying material of the second layer is bonded to a faceof the YBCO of the first layer, wherein the face is not substantiallyperpendicular to a c-axis of the YBCO, wherein the modifying materialcomprises an element selected from the group consisting of: chromium,rhodium, beryllium, gallium, selenium, and vanadium.
 2. The compositionof claim 1, wherein the modifying material of the second layer is bondedto a face of the YBCO of the first layer, wherein the face issubstantially perpendicular to any line in an a-b plane of the YBCO. 3.The composition of claim 1, wherein the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, wherein theface is substantially perpendicular to a b-axis of the YBCO.
 4. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, wherein theface is substantially perpendicular to an a-axis of the YBCO.
 5. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the modifying material of the secondlayer is bonded to a face of the YBCO of the first layer, wherein theface is substantially parallel to the c-axis.
 6. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein the composition has improved operating characteristicsover those of YBCO.
 7. The composition of claim 1, wherein thecomposition operates at a higher temperature than that of YBCO.
 8. Thecomposition of claim 7, wherein the composition demonstrates extremelylow resistance at a higher temperature than that of YBCO.
 9. Thecomposition of claim 7, wherein the composition transitions from anon-ELR state to a ELR state at a temperature higher than that of YBCO.10. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition has a transitiontemperature greater than that of YBCO.
 11. The composition of claim 1,wherein the composition carries a greater amount of current in an ELRstate than that carried by YBCO in its ELR state.
 12. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein the second layer is deposited onto the first layer. 13.The composition of claim 1, wherein the first layer is deposited ontothe second layer.
 14. The composition of claim 1, wherein the YBCO ofthe first layer is formed on the second layer.
 15. A method comprising:bonding a modifying material to a face of YBCO, wherein the face of theYBCO is not substantially perpendicular to a c-axis of the YBCO, whereinthe modifying material comprises an element selected from the groupconsisting of: chromium, rhodium, beryllium, gallium, selenium, andvanadium.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein bonding a modifyingmaterial to a face of YBCO comprises depositing the modifying materialonto the YBCO.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein bonding a modifyingmaterial to a face of YBCO comprises forming the YBCO on the modifyingmaterial.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein bonding a modifyingmaterial to a face of YBCO comprises bonding a first layer comprisingthe modifying material to a second layer comprising the YBCO.
 19. Acomposition comprising: a first layer comprising an HTS perovskitematerial; and a second layer comprising a modifying material, whereinthe modifying material of the second layer is bonded to a face of theHTS perovskite material of the first layer, wherein the face of the HTSperovskite material is not substantially perpendicular to a c-axis ofthe HTS perovskite material, wherein the modifying material is aconductive material that bonds easily with oxygen.
 20. The compositionof claim 19, wherein the modifying material is an element selected fromthe group consisting of: chromium, rhodium, beryllium, gallium,selenium, and vanadium.
 21. The composition of claim 19, wherein theface of the HTS perovskite material is substantially perpendicular to ana-axis or a b-axis of the HTS perovskite material.
 22. A compositioncomprising: an HTS perovskite material; and a modifying material bondedto a face of the HTS perovskite material, wherein the face of the HTSperovskite material is not substantially perpendicular to a c-axis ofthe HTS perovskite material, wherein the composition operates in an ELRstate at a temperature greater than that of the HTS perovskite material.23. The composition of claim 22, wherein the modifying materialcomprises an element selected from the group consisting of: chromium,rhodium, beryllium, gallium, selenium, and vanadium.
 24. The compositionof claim 22, wherein the face of the HTS perovskite material issubstantially perpendicular to an a-axis or a b-axis of the HTSperovskite material.
 25. A method comprising: bonding a modifyingmaterial to a face of an HTS perovskite material, wherein the face ofthe HTS perovskite material is not substantially perpendicular to ac-axis of the HTS perovskite material, wherein the modifying materialcomprises an element selected from the group consisting of: chromium,rhodium, beryllium, gallium, selenium, and vanadium.
 26. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the face of the HTS perovskite material issubstantially perpendicular to an a-axis or a b-axis of the HTSperovskite material.
 27. A composition comprising: a first layercomprising an extremely low resistance material; a second layercomprising a modifying material, wherein the second layer is bonded to aface of the first layer, wherein the face of the extremely lowresistance material is not substantially perpendicular to a c-axis ofthe extremely low resistance material; a third layer comprising theextremely low resistance material; and a fourth layer of the modifyingmaterial, wherein the fourth layer is bonded to the third layer.
 28. Thecomposition of claim 27, wherein the face of the extremely lowresistance material of the first layer is substantially perpendicular toan a-axis or a b-axis of the extremely low resistance material.
 29. Thecomposition of claim 27, wherein the fourth layer is bonded to a face ofthe extremely low resistance material of the third layer, wherein theface of the extremely low resistance material of the third layer is notsubstantially perpendicular to a c-axis of the extremely low resistancematerial.
 30. The composition of claim 29, wherein the face of theextremely low resistance material of the third layer is substantiallyperpendicular to an a-axis or a b-axis of the extremely low resistancematerial.
 31. The composition of claim 29, wherein the face of theextremely low resistance material of the first layer is substantiallyperpendicular to an a-axis or a b-axis of the extremely low resistancematerial, and wherein the face of the extremely low resistance materialof the third layer is substantially perpendicular to an a-axis or ab-axis of the extremely low resistance material.